Ausente pero siempre presente: reflexiones sobre el secreto en la tradición šī‛i y en el misticismo sunní ; Absent yet at All Times Present: Further Thoughts on Secrecy in the Shī‛ī Tradition and in Sunnī Mysticism

Este artículo analiza el hadit que se encuentra tanto en las fuentes ši,íes como sunníes que retrata al creyente ideal como un hombre escondido que elige practicar su religión apartado de los ojos de los otros. Según el autor, esta tradición tiene su origen en las luchas políticoreligiosas (fitnas) del siglo II/VIII, que propiciaron una actitud piadosa de retiro de la sociedad y no participación en tiempos de lucha civil. En las versiones ši,íes del hadit el elemento de secreto, taqiyya, se añade a la descripción del creyente ideal. Estos motivos habrán de desempeñar un papel importante en movimientos místicos como el de malamatiyya. Aunque el esoterismo ši,í y el misticismo sunní incorporaron hadices similares a su elaboración del santo escondido, la tradición ši,í contribuyó particularmente al desarrollo de este tema tanto en términos ético-psicológicos como esotéricos.

The article analyzes a tradition (hadith) that is found in Sunni and in Shi,i sources alike and which portrays the ideal believer as a hidden man who chooses to practice his religion away from the eyes of others.According to the author's analysis, this tradition has its origins in the religious-political conflicts (fitnas) of the 2 nd /8 th century.These conflicts gave rise to a pietistic attitude of noninvolvement and withdrawal from society in times of civil strife.In Shi,i versions of the tradition, the element of secrecy and taqiyya is added to the description of the ideal believer.These various motifs were to play an important role in Islamic mysticism, particularly in the teachings of movements such as the malamatiyya.The author argues that while both Shi,i esotericism and Sunni mysticism incorporated similar, early hadiths in their discussions of the figure of the hidden saint, the Shi,i tradition contributed much to the development of this theme in its ethical-psychological and esoteric aspects.Key words: Taqiyya; Secrecy; Mysticism; Esotericism; Shi,a; Malamatiyya; Sainthood; Wali; Awliya,; The Hidden Saint; Fitna; Ja,far al-Sadiq; Dhu l-Nun al-Misri.
serves the Shi,i believers as a means of self-protection against their Sunni rivals.Given that the Shi,is were (and still are) a minority in the Islamic world and that the Shi,i claims have always posed a religiouspolitical threat to the very foundation of the Sunni worldview, the Shi,is were compelled early on in their history to devise a mechanism that would allow them to maintain their faith while living under (often hostile) Sunni rule.At the same time, taqiyya entails an important esoteric aspect: it is designed to safeguard the secrets of the Shi,i faith and to hide them from the uninitiated, be they Sunni Muslims or the common Shi,i believers, who are unable to comprehend the subtle mysteries of their own religion.From this perspective, the Shi,i faith may be perceived as an esoteric tradition.In fact, it seems that from a relatively early stage in their history, the Shi,is, or more precisely, Shi,i imams such as Muhammad al-Baqir (died circa 114/732) and Ja,far al-Sadiq (died 148/765) as well as their close followers viewed their faith in just this way.It comes as no surprise that in many Shi,i sayings, concealing Shi,i beliefs and, at times (depending on the circumstances), manifesting non-Shi,i doctrines are presented as a religious obligation of the utmost importance. 1 A similar phenomenon is found in Sunni mysticism.In order to protect himself, the mystic, who is often confronted by fierce opponentsthe religious scholars (‛ulama,) who firmly adhere to the exoteric dimensions of the Qur,an and the shari‛a (the religious law), the theologians who view the human intellect (‛aql) and human consideration (nazar) as the sole means of understanding religion, and the rulers with whom the former two groups tend to cooperate -is obliged to conceal his mystical experiences and mystical knowledge from the eyes of others.However, this concealment is also meant to guard the divine, mystical secrets from the common Muslims, who are unworthy of them.Secrecy in Sunni mysticism thus functions both as a self-defense mechanism and as an esoteric device. 2 1 See Ebstein, "Secrecy in Isma,ili Tradition and in the Mystical Thought of Ibn al-,Arabi", pp.303-329; to the references given there add now De Smet, "L'alphabet secret des Ismaéliens ou la force magique de l'écriture" and Clarke, "The Rise and Decline of Taqiyya in Twelver Shi,ism".On the esoteric nature of the early Shi,i tradition, see mainly Corbin, En Islam iranien: aspects spirituels et philosophiques; Amir-Moezzi, La religion discrète: croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l'Islam Shi‛ite; Amir-Moezzi, Le guide divin dans le Shî‛isme originel: aux sources de l'ésotérisme en Islam.
2 See Ebstein, "Secrecy", pp.311-312, 329-343.Elsewhere I have discussed the relation between the Shi,i-Isma,ili concept of taqiyya and the notion of secrecy in the writings of the wellknown Sunni mystic Muhyi al-Din Ibn al-,Arabi (560/1165-638/1240).I have also alluded to the possibility of earlier historical links between Shi,i esotericism and Sunni mysticism. 3More specifically, in various Shi,i traditions (hadiths) contained in Ithna-,Ashari (Twelver) and in Isma,ili sources, the ideal Shi,i believer is portrayed as a hidden saint who worships God piously and assiduously, maintains an ascetic lifestyle, and, above all, conceals the secrets of his faith from the profane eyes of others.The combination of these traits grants the believer mystical abilities and miraculous powers.The figure of the hidden saint that emerges from such Shi,i traditions is quite reminiscent of the ethical-psychological ideals espoused by various Sunni mystics and particularly by the malamatiyya, those who follow "the path of blame" (malama).According to the malamatiyya, the mystic should internalize his spirituality and hide his mystical achievements in order to prevent his lower self or ego (nafs) from taking pride in them.Consequently, the malamatiyya disapproved of performing religious, ascetic, and mystical activities in public, and some malamatis even took to openly commit sins so as to attract criticism and condemnation. 4n what follows I shall attempt to analyze an early tradition (hadith) which is found in Shi,i and in Sunni sources alike and which depicts the ideal believer as a hidden saint.The aim of this analysis is twofold: first, to illustrate the way in which both the Shi,i tradition and Sunni mysticism incorporated similar, early hadiths in their discussions of the hidden saint; and second, to emphasize the significant role of the Shi,i tradition in the development of this theme in Islamic mysticism.

Trials and Tribulations
In a tradition attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, the latter is reported to have said: Blessed are the strangers and the hidden ones who if present, are unknown, and if absent, are not sought after.Every grey and dark trial (fitna) will be removed from them.They are the lamps [that light] the right path; Allah loves and admires them more than those who are admired [by men]. 5e term fitna (plural: fitan) may denote any temptation or affliction whereby one's faith is put to the test by God.However, the specific fitna to which this tradition seems to refer is that of discord or civil conflict among the believers.As is well known, such fitnas had erupted during the first two centuries of Islamic history; they were often perceived by the members of the nascent Muslim community as signs of the looming end of time, as eschatological trials and tribulations that only the true believers could endure. 6In a slightly different version of the tradition, it is said that the most fortunate one during trials is the hidden, God-fearing man: if he appears, he is unknown, and if he is absent, he is not sought after.The most wretched one during [trials] is the loud-voiced [or: eloquent] preacher, or he who rides [his beast] at a gentle pace. 7is tradition, which appears in other versions as well in different Sunni sources, 8 can be dated at least to the first half of the 2 nd /8 th cen-5 Al-Mawsili, Kitab al-zuhd, pp.218-219 (Ibn Lahi,a < ,Abd al-Karim b. al-Harith < the Prophet: Tuba lil-ghuraba, al-akhfiya, al-ladhina in hadaru lam yu,rafu wa-in ghabu lam yuftaqadu tanjali ,anhum kull fitna ghabra, muzlima hum suruj al-huda hum ahabb ila llah wa-a,jab min al-ladhi yu,jabuna lahum).On the theme of the ghuraba, ("strangers"), see Fierro, "Spiritual Alienation and Political Activism: The Guraba, in al-Andalus during the Sixth/Twelfth Century".
6 See Cook,Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic,[38][39][40][41]s.v. "fitna". 7 This version ends with the following statement: "Only he who invokes God sincerely like one who is drowning in the sea will be saved from the evil [of these trials]".See Nu,aym b.Hammad, Kitab al-fitan, p. 150 (,Uthman b.Kathir < Muhammad b.Muhajir < Junayd b.Maymun < Dirar b. ,Amr < Abu Hurayra < the Prophet: As,ad al-nas fi l-fitan kull khafi naqi [read: taqi] in zahara lam yu,raf wa-in ghaba lam yuftaqad wa-ashqa l-nas fiha kull khatib misqa, [read: misqa,] aw rakib mudi, la yakhlusu min sharriha illa man akhlasa al-du,a, ka-du,a, al-ghariq fi l-bahr); see also al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-‛ummal fi sunan al-aqwal wa-l-af‛al, vol. X, p. 144; and cf.Nu,aym b.Hammad, Kitab al-Fitan,  p. 144.In other versions, the statement "Only he who invokes God sincerely […]" appears as a separate tradition; see Nu,aym b. Hammad,p. 139;vol. I,pp. 26,88. 8 See, for example, Ibn Qutayba, ,Uyun al-akhbar, vol.II, p. 352: "Allah loves the hidden, God-fearing, and innocent ones who when absent, are not sought after, and when present, are unknown.Their hearts are the lamps [that light] the right path; they will be extricated from [or: will extricate themselves from] every grey and dark [trial]" (Ishaq b.Sulayman < his brother [Talha b.Sulayman] < al-Fayyad [b.Ghazwan] < Zubayd al-Yami < Mu,adh b.Jabal < the Prophet: Inna llah yuhibbu al-akhfiya, al-atqiya, al-abriya, al-ladhina idha ghabu lam yuftaqadu wa-idha hadaru lam yu,rafu qulubuhum masabih al-huda tury -a period that witnessed several fitnas.9 One may assume therefore that this tradition reflects an early attitude of neutrality and noninvolvement in religious-political disputes; rather than actively participating in them, the true believer should withdraw from society and remain hidden from his fellow man. Moreover, it seems that this attitude also entailed a strong anti-governmental sentiment.The tradition analyzed here appears in a letter that Salama b.Dinar -an ascetic from al-Madina, who died sometime between 130-140/747-758 -10 is said to have written to Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, the well-known muhaddith and scholar (died 124/742). 11In his letter, quoted by Abu Nu,aym al-Isfahani in Hilyat al-awliya,, Salama b.Dinar severely criticizes al-Zuhri for his close contacts and collaboration with the "oppressive" and "unjust" Umayyad regime: Know that there are two kinds of dignity: one that Allah, may He be exalted, effects by means of His friends (awliya,ihi) for His friends who are unknown and concealed.They have been described by the messenger of Allah, may Allah's prayers and blessings be upon him: 'Allah loves the hidden, God-fearing, and innocent ones who when absent, are not sought after, and when seen are unknown.Their hearts are the lamps [that light] the right path; they will be extricated from [or: will extricate themselves from] every black and dark trial'.These are the friends of yukhrajuna/yakhrujuna min kull ghabra, muzlima); Ibn Qutayba, Ta,wil mukhtalif al-hadith, p. 277; al-ajurri, Kitab al-ghuraba,, p. 50  Jabal < the Prophet: ahabb al-,ibad ila llah ta,ala al-atqiya, al-akhfiya, al-ladhina idha ghabu lam yuftaqadu wa-idha shuhidu lam yu,rafu ula,ika hum a,immat al-huda wa-masabih al-,ilm; note that the phrase "when seen" [wa-idha shuhidu] can also be rendered "when present" [wa-idha shahidu]); al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, vol. III,p. 153. 9 For this early dating, see the discussion below concerning the letter of Salama b.Dinar to al-Zuhri.The tradition is likewise quoted by al-Mu,afa b. ,Imran al-Mawsili (see above n.5), who died circa 184/800 (see Sezgin, GAS, vol.I, p. 348) In Salama b.Dinar's view, the true friends of God are anonymous; attaining fame and dignity by serving the ruler is a clear sign that one belongs to "Satan's party". Tis anti-governmental stance is likewise echoed in other versions of the tradition.13 In addition to its political implications, this tradition also reflects an ethical-psychological ideal according to which religious activities should be performed in private, away from the eyes of others.In one version that addresses the issue of jihad -a religious obligation closely linked to asceticism and piety in the early history of Islam -14 it is stated that 12 Al-Isfahani, Hilyat al-awliya,, vol.III, pp.248-249 (Wa-,lam anna al-jah jahani jah yujrihi llah ta,ala ,ala yaday awliya,ihi li-awliya,ihi al-khamil dhikruhum al-khafiya shukhusuhum wa-laqad ja,a na,tuhum ,ala lisan rasul allah salla llah ,alayhi wa-sallama inna llah yuhibbu al-akhfiya, al-atqiya, al-abriya, al-ladhina idha ghabu lam yuftaqadu wa-idha shuhidu lam yu,rafu qulubuhum masabih al-huda yukhrajuna/yakhrujuna min kull fitna sawda, muzlima fa-ha,ula,i awliya, Allah al-ladhina qala llah ta,ala fihim ula,ika hizb allah ala inna hizb allah hum al-muflihuna wa-jah yujrihi llah ta,ala ,ala yaday a,da,ihi li-awliya,ihi [read: li-awliya,ihim, and see Ibn ,Asakir's version below] wa-miqa yaqdhifuha llah fi qulubihim lahum fa-yu,azzimuhum al-nas bi-ta,zim ula,ika lahum wa-yarghabu al-nas fima fi aydihim li-raghbat ula,ika fihi ilayhim ula,ika hizb al-shaytan ala inna hizb al-shaytan hum alkhasiruna); cf.Ibn ,Asakir, Ta,rikh madinat Dimashq, vol.XXII, p. 44; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur,an al-,azim, vol.XIII, pp.469-470; see also Lecker,"Biographical Notes",p. 34 n. 56. 13 See, for example, Ibn Abi al-Dunya, al-Awliya,, p. 12: "Among the kings of the world to come is one who [is characterized by the following:] if he speaks, he is not listened to; if he is absent, he is not sought after; if he asks a woman in marriage, he is not married [to her]; and if he asks to enter in the presence of a ruler, he is not permitted [to do so].Were his light on the day of resurrection to be set over the inhabitants of this world, it would fill them with light" (al-Qasim b.Hashim < Muhammad b.Sa,id al-Qurashi al-Basri < Abu Hatim ,Abd al-Rahman b. ,Abd Allah < ,Awf < al-Hasan < the Prophet: Inna min muluk al-akhira man in nataqa lam yunsat lahu wa-in ghaba lam yuftaqad wa-in khataba lam yuzawwaj wa-in ista,dhana ,ala sultan lam yu,dhan lahu law yuj,alu nuruhu yawm alqiyama ,ala ahl al-dunya la-mala,ahum nuran).14 See, for example, Elad, Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places,  Ceremonies, Pilgrimage, p. 66 n. 76; Livne-Kafri, Jerusalem in Early Islam: Selected Essays, pp.118-123 (in Hebrew); Livne-Kafri, "Early Muslim Ascetics and the World of Christian Monasticism", p. 110.-Qantara XXXIV 2, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014MICHAEL EBSTEIN may Allah have mercy on a servant who is on His path: if there is a military expedition, he participates in it, and if there is an army unit, he sets off with it; if he is absent, he is not sought after, and if he is seen, he is unknown.Blessed is he, blessed is he.15 Fighting and perhaps dying anonymously "on the path of Allah" or "for Allah's sake" (fi sabil allah) merit divine mercy.Evidently, this version of the tradition aims at encouraging Muslims to perform the duty of jihad and (by doing so) to avoid participating in religious-political disputes within the Muslim community.Yet the emphasis on anonymity implies that the desire for fame reduces the value of jihad, or of any other religious action for that matter.This is clearly the case in other versions that link the tradition to the concept of riya, ("hypocrisy"), i.e. when one performs a religious deed ostentatiously so that others may witness it and praise him for it:

Al
[Even] a little hypocrisy is polytheism (shirk); Allah loves the God-fearing, hidden, and innocent ones who if absent, are not sought after, and if present, are unknown.Their hearts are the lamps [that light] the right path; they will be saved from every grey and dark [trial]. 16e concept of riya, and the assertion that it constitutes polytheism (at least to a certain extent) were to play an important role in the psy- See also al-Tabarani, al-Mu,jam al-saghir, vol.II, pp.45-46 and al-Tabarani, al-Mu,jam  al-awsat, vol.VII, p. 187  Ghazwan < Zubayd al-Yami < Mujahid < Ibn ,Umar < ,Umar < Mu,adh b.Jabal < the Prophet: yakhrujuna/yukhrajuna min kull fitna sawda, muzlima instead of yanjuna min kull ghabra, muzlima); al-Tabarani, al-Mu‛jam al-awsat, vol.V, p. 284 and al-Tabarani,  al-Mu,jam al-kabir, vol.XX, pp.36-37 (Inna adna al-riya, shirk […], with the same tradi-Al-Qantara XXXIV 1, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014ABSENT YET AT ALL TIMES PRESENT chological theories of Islamic mysticism, especially in the teachings of the malamatiyya. 17In several sources, the statement "[Even] a little hypocrisy is polytheism" (or similar statements) appears as a separate hadith and is not linked to the main body of the tradition examined here. 18It seems therefore that the original version of this tradition did not refer to the concept of riya,, though the ethical-psychological ideal of conducting one's religious life in secret is indeed implicit in the notion of anonymity and withdrawal from society.

Secrecy
Let us now turn to the Shi,i sources.In a tradition treating of the fitnas and the eschatological events at the end of time, ,Ali b.Abi Talib is quoted as saying:  There will be a time when no one will be saved except for the unheeded believer: 19 if he is seen, he is unknown, and if he is absent, he is not sought after.Those are the lamps [that light] the right path and the waymarks during the night journey.They do not go about spreading calumnies and divulging secrets. 20Allah will open for them the gates of His mercy and will dispel from them the harm of His revenge [or, according to another version: through them Allah will open the gates of His mercy and through them He will dispel the harm of His revenge]. 21 this version, a new element is added to the themes hitherto discussed: that of secrecy.In times of religious-political turmoil, the Shi,i believer ought to retreat from society and hide the secrets of his faith.These secrets presumably pertain to the imams and perhaps also to various messianic beliefs.Avoiding "spreading calumnies [concerning the imams] and divulging secrets" is meant to protect the imams and their followers and safeguard the Shi,i faith itself.At the same time, the secrecy in which the believer cloaks himself entails an ethical-< ,Umar < Mu,adh b.Jabal: Qalil al-riya, shirk wa-sami,tuhu yaqulu inna khiyar ,ibad Allah al-atqiya, al-akhfiya, al-ladhina in shuhidu lam yu,rafu wa-in ghabu lam yuftaqadu qulubuhum masabih al-huda yunajjihim allah min kull ghabra, muzlima). 19Mu,min nuwama, literally: "a believer who sleeps a lot", i.e. an obscure person who is unnoticed by others.See Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-‛arab, vol.VI, p. 4584 (s.v.n.w.m.); cf.Ibn Qutayba,Ta,p. 277;Ibn Qutayba,,vol. LXVI,p. 273. 20 Laysu bi-l-masayih wa-la al-madhayi, al-budhur.Budhur can also be translated as "slanderers", though it seems that the meaning here is "divulging secrets"; see also Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh nahj al-balagha, vol.VII, p. 110.Cf. the version in Ibn Qutayba,  Ta,wil mukhtalif al-hadith, p. 277 and Ibn Qutayba, ,Uyun al-akhbar, p. 353 (Laysu bi-l-,ujul al-madhayi, al-budhur).

Al-Qantara
Other Shi,i traditions convey a very similar notion.For instance, one saying attributed to Ja,far al-Sadiq asserts that blessed is the unheeded servant who knows men and accompanies them with his body, yet within his heart does not accompany them in their actions; they know him externally (fi al-zahir), whereas he knows them internally (fi al-batin). 22 this tradition, one may discern a remarkable shift from the external, social-political sphere to the inner, spiritual-psychological realm.Rather than physically withdrawing from society, the believer is portrayed as retiring internally from human vices.In respect of his body, he is simply one anonymous man among many; yet within his heart he is different and unique, standing apart from other human beings.
There is reason to believe that these ideas were already prevalent in the early Shi,i milieu of the mid-8 th century, among the circles of Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja,far al-Sadiq. 23It was in this period which witnessed the decline of the Umayyad dynasty and the transition to the ,Abbasi regime that several fitnas arose.One may mention in particular the unsuccessful revolt of Zayd b. ,Ali b. al-Husayn against the Umayyads in the year 122/740, as well as other revolts carried out by the Hasani branch of the Shi,a.These tumultuous events led Muhammad al-Baqir, Ja,far al-Sadiq, and their followers to adopt an attitude of noninvolvement in religious-political conflicts and of quietism (qu,ud). 24Such an attitude involved the practice of taqiyya and, in addition, the development of an ethical-psychological ideal according to which one must conceal his unique religious status from the eyes of others.The combination of these various elements -neutrality in civil conflicts, taqiyya as both a mechanism of survival and an esoteric 23 See the traditions attributed to these two imams in al-Majlisi, Bihar al-anwar, vol.LXVI,278;vol. II,vol. VIII, See also Hodgson, M.G.S., "Dja,far al-Sadiq", in EI 2 , vol.II, p. 374; Clarke, "The Rise and Decline", pp.50-55.Al-Qantara XXXIV 2, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014MICHAEL EBSTEIN tool meant to protect the secrets of the faith, and, finally, the ethicalpsychological ideal of hiding one's spirituality -seems to be a specifically Shi,i innovation that perhaps in turn influenced various Sunni circles.Do such statements as the one quoted above -"the most wretched one during [trials] is the loud-voiced [or: eloquent] preacher" -25 reflect the Shi,i notion of secrecy?Were ascetic, pious Sunni scholars such as Salama b.Dinar, whose letter to al-Zuhri I have mentioned above,26 instrumental in passing this and other Shi,i notions into the Sunni world?Salama b.Dinar resided in al-Madina in the same period as Ja,far al-Sadiq, and according to Shi,i sources, he was in contact with him as well as with his grandfather, the imam ,Ali b. al-Husayn. 27Be that as it may, it is impossible to determine whether or not the tradition analyzed in this article originated in Shi,i circles, in al-Madina or elsewhere.Its isnads in various sources include transmitters from Egypt, Syria, Basra, and Kufa, Shi,is and Sunnis alike.28 All we can say is that this tradition reflects certain pietistic attitudes that were most likely formed during the religious-political upheavals in the first half of the 2 nd /8 th century.Their roots perhaps go back even earlier, to the 1 st /7 th century and its fitnas.It appears though that the Shi,i milieu played a significant role in the formation of these attitudes and in the development of their ethical-psychological and esoteric dimensions.

Later Developments
In both Sunni and Shi,i sources, the hadith examined above was elaborated on and incorporated into lengthier traditions aimed at portraying the figure of the hidden saint.In these traditions, the ideal believer is depicted not only as one who shuns religious-political disputes, worships God in private, and (in the Shi,i case) keeps the secrets of his faith hidden, but also as a wandering, pious, and ascetic man who maintains an austere lifestyle and spends his days and nights praying, reciting the Qur,an, fasting, and crying.Furthermore, the figure of the hidden saint is juxtaposed with that of the profane and unjust ruler: whereas the latter symbolizes the decadent aspects of man and the defilement of his role as God's vicegerent on earth (khalifa), the former is viewed as the true "friend of God" (wali) whose presence in the world, albeit hidden, guarantees its very existence and the wellbeing of mankind.The hidden saints thus form a 'shadow cabinet' -a clandestine, spiritual alternative to the corrupt political leadership of the Muslim community.From this perspective, the descriptions of the hidden saint in Sunni and Shi,i sources are rather subversive, although the supreme status of the awliya, is presented as spiritual, not political, and is said to be fully revealed only at the end of time.
A long tradition treating of Uways al-Qarani will serve to illustrate these themes as they were developed in the Sunni world.Uways, who was to become an important figure in Sufism, was allegedly a contemporary of Muhammad who hailed from the Yemen. 29According to the tradition, upon a visit of Uways to the Prophet's mosque, 30 Muhammad said to his famous companion, Abu Hurayra: Oh, Abu Hurayra, the inhabitants of Paradise have kings and chiefs, and this black man [Uways al-Qarani] has become one of them.Oh, Abu Hurayra, Allah, may 29 According to the Sufi tradition, Uways enjoyed 'telepathic' communication with the Prophet, and, accordingly, is the prototype for mystics who receive their spiritual instruction from an invisible master -either from the spirit of a dead prophet or saint, from a living but physically absent teacher, or from God Himself.Often, these 'Uwaysi' mystics are presented as hidden saints.See Baldick, J., "Uways al-Karani" and "Uwaysiyya", in EI 2 , vol.X, p. 958; Hussaini, "Uways al-Qarani"; Zakharia, "Uways al-Qarani". 30Thus according to Abu Nu,aym al-Isfahani's Hilyat al-awliya,; however, according to the version found in Kitab al-futuh by the earlier Ibn A,tham al-Kufi (died.314/926), Uways did not visit the Prophet's mosque (see the references below in notes 32-33).Indeed, most sources assert that Uways was a tabi‛i and did not meet the Prophet in person, although the Prophet was familiar with him and recognized his high spiritual status.
Al-Qantara XXXIV 2, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014He be exalted, loves from among His created beings the pure, hidden, and innocent ones whose heads are disheveled, whose faces are dust-colored, and whose stomachs are empty […] When they ask to enter in the presence of rulers, they are not permitted [to do so]; if they ask delicate [women] in marriage, they are not married [to them]; if they are absent, they are not sought after; if they are present, they are not summoned; if they appear, their countenance does not cause joy; if they are sick, they are not visited; and if they die, they are not seen.
33 See al-Isfahani, Hilyat al-awliya,, vol.II, pp.82-83; cf. the versions in Ibn A,tham  al-Kufi, Kitab al-Futuh, vol.II, pp.451-456; al-Kharkushi, Manahil al-shifa, vol.VI, pp.110-114; Ibn ,Asakir, Ta,rikh madinat Dimashq, vol.IX, pp.423-425; al-Qazwini, Athar   Al-Qantara XXXIV 1, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014ABSENT YET AT ALL TIMES PRESENT In this tradition, ,Umar and ,Ali may be regarded as symbolizing the ideal ruler in accordance with the Sunni and Shi,i worldviews: ,Umar represents the just Sunni caliph and ,Ali the Shi,i imam par excellence.The tradition thus places the hidden saint above the ruler in terms of their spiritual status, and in so doing, reflects a critical approach towards both the Sunni and Shi,i conceptions of political-religious power.Notwithstanding the God-given right of the caliph or imam to rule the Muslim community -nowhere in this tradition does Uways challenge the political authority of ,Umar and ,Ali -the saint occupies a higher rank in the spiritual hierarchy of mankind, to such a degree that even the caliph or imam must seek his intercession before God.Furthermore, as stated above, the presence of the hidden saint guarantees the very existence of creation and the wellbeing of mankind: it is through him rather than through the ruler that divine benefits are bestowed on the world and divine chastisement is averted. 34n contradistinction, the Shi,i sources naturally uphold the supreme status of the imam, who is perceived as the only rightful ruler and the sole mediator between man and God.Nevertheless, the imam's true followers and supporters, his close shi,a ("party"), are presented as hidden saints who, in addition to leading an ascetic and pious life, practice taqiyya and avoid divulging the secrets of their faith.In a tradition attributed to Ja,far al-Sadiq, the latter is quoted as saying: al-bilad wa-akhbar al-,ibad, pp.46-47; Ibn al-Jawzi, Sifat al-safwa, vol.III, pp.45-48;  see also the text attributed to al-Ghazali, translated and analyzed in Zakharia,[257][258] See also the words of the Prophet to Usama b.Zayd, in al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, al-Muntakhab min kitab al-zuhd, pp.118-119: "[…] Through them the earthquakes and trials are averted" ([…] bihim tusrafu al-zalazil wa-l-fitan); "Know, Usama, that the closest ones to Allah on the day of resurrection are those whose grief, thirst, and hunger in this world have lasted long, the hidden and innocent ones who when seen, are unknown, and when absent, are not sought after.They are known among the inhabitants of heaven and are concealed from the inhabitants of earth […]" (Wa-,lam ya Usama anna aqrab al-nas ila llah yawm al-qiyama man tala huznuhu wa-,atashuhu wa-ju,uhu fi al-dunya al-akhfiya, al-abrar al-ladhina idha shuhidu lam yu,rafu wa-idha ghabu lam yuftaqadu yu,rafuna fi ahl al-sama, yakhfawna ,ala ahl al-ard […]); "The earth weeps when it loses them, and any town that does not have [at least] one of them suffers the wrath of Allah.Usama, if you see them in a village, know that they guarantee the safety of its inhabitants; Allah will not chastise any people among whom they are present" (Tabki al-ard idha faqadathum wa-yaskhatu llah ,ala kull balad laysa fihi minhum ahad ya usama idha ra,aytahum fi qarya fa-,lam annahum aman li-tilka al-qarya fi ahl al-qarya la yu,adhdhibu llah qawman hum fihi); cf. the versions in Ibn ,Asakir, Ta,rikh madinat Dimashq, vol.VIII, pp. 7680; al-Makki, Qut al-qulub,  vol.II, pp.278-279; al-Ghazali, Ihya, ,ulum al-din, vol.III, p. 81.Our party consists of those whose voices do not exceed their ears, 35 whose hatred does not exceed their own bodies, 36 who do not praise us in public, 37 who do not sit in company with those who charge us with vices, and yet do not quarrel with those who hate us.38 If they meet a believer [i.e. a Shi,i], they show him respect, and if they meet an ignorant one [a Sunni], they shun him […] Our party consists of those who do not howl like dogs nor covet like crows, 39 who do not beg our enemy even when dying of hunger.
When asked where these believers might be found, Ja,far al-Sadiq replied: [They are to be found] at the ends of earth.Those are the ones whose lives are serene and who wander from one abode to another; if they are seen, they are unknown; if they are absent, they are not sought after; and they are not anxious about dying […]. 40 35 I other words, their voices are soft and quiet, testifying to their gentle, modest character (see al-Mazandarani, Sharh usul al-kafi, vol.IX, p. 174), or alternatively, to their discretion as regards the secrets of their faith.Cf. the version in al-Qadi al-Nu,man, Da,a,im al-islam, vol.I, p. 80: "those whose knowledge does not exceed their ears" (man la ya,du ,ilmuhu sam,ahu) -i.e. they are discrete, or alternatively, their knowledge is solely based on what they hear from the imams -on their teachings. 36That is, they are able to control their hatred (see al-Mazandarani, Sharh usul alkafi, vol.IX, p. 174; and cf. the version there: "whose hatred does not exceed their hands"), or alternatively, they are critical only of themselves and do not show hatred towards anyone else.

Conclusions and a Few Remarks Concerning Dhu al-Nun al-Misri
The tradition analyzed in this article seems to have its origins in the fitnas of the 2 nd /8 th and perhaps even the 1 st /7 th centuries.The religiouspolitical conflicts that tore the Muslim community apart gave rise to a pietistic attitude of noninvolvement and withdrawal from society in times of civil strife, an attitude that also entailed a strong anti-governmental sentiment.Early versions of the tradition, which can be dated at least to the first half of the 2 nd /8 th century, portray the ideal believer as a righteous, hidden man who retires from the company of men and chooses to practice his religion in solitude.In the course of time, from the 8 th and 9 th centuries onwards, additional elements were added to these features of the ideal believer.The latter was described as a pious, ascetic, and wandering man -as a true saint in the full sense of the word, whose mere presence in the world ensures its existence as well as the physical and spiritual wellbeing of mankind.The ethical-psychological ideal of hiding one's religious accomplishments from the eyes of others -an ideal that was to gain much importance in Sunni mysticism, particularly for the malamatiyya -was likewise pro-  anwar, vol.LXV, pp.164-166, vol.LXVI, pp.402-403; al-Qadi al-Nu,man, Da‛a,im alislam, vol.I, pp.73-74 (Ja,far al-Sadiq; see also Ebstein, "Secrecy", pp.307-309), 80-81  (Muhammad al-Baqir).See also the sermon that ,Ali b.Abi Talib is reported to have delivered to his mawla Nawf, in Jarrar (ed.), Majmu‛ fihi ‛asharat ajza, hadithiyya, pp.211-212 (Hadith ibn makhlad al-bazzaz ,an shuyukhihi); Ibn ,Asakir, Ta,rikh madinat Dimashq,  vol.LXII, p. 306 (note that Muhammad al-Baqir appears as one of the transmitters of this tradition); cf.al-Tusi, Amali al-shaykh al-Tusi, vol.II, pp.188-189; al-Majlisi, Bihar alanwar, vol.LXXV, pp.25-26, vol.LXVI, pp.275-277; al-Karajaki, Kanz al-fawa,id, pp.87-88.In this sermon, the ascetic lifestyle of the ideal believer is particularly emphasized.-Qantara XXXIV 2, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014MICHAEL EBSTEIN nounced.Moreover, the hidden saint was presented as an alternative, albeit not in the political sense, to the spiritually inferior rulers of the Muslim community.

Al
In the Shi,i tradition, probably from a relatively early stage in its formation (the mid-8 th century), these themes were closely linked to the concept of secrecy.In Shi,i hadiths attributed, among other imams, to Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja,far al-Sadiq, the ideal believer is depicted as an ascetic, pious, anonymous, and wandering man who practices taqiyya and is careful not to divulge the secrets of his faith.The practice of taqiyya is meant to guarantee the safety of the imams and their followers and to conceal the sacred Shi,i teachings from the profane eyes of the uninitiated.From an ethical-psychological point of view, it is designed to maintain the believer's modesty and humility.
Both Sunni mysticism and the Shi,i tradition incorporated similar, early hadiths in their discussions of the hidden saint, and can therefore be seen as two branches deriving from the same roots.To these common roots one may add various pre-Islamic traditions in which the notion of the hidden saint figures as well. 41However, the motif of secrecy in this context seems to be unique to the early Shi,i milieu; it resurfaces later on in Sunni mystical writings. 42Accordingly, one may conclude that the early Shi,i milieu contributed much to the development of the idea of the hidden saint, particularly in its ethical-psychological and esoteric aspects.
Further evidence for this Shi,i contribution may be gleaned from the sayings attributed to Dhu al-Nun al-Misri, the well-known Sunni mystic who lived in Egypt and died circa 245/859-860. 43One of the main themes in the sayings ascribed to Dhu al-Nun is the figure of God's friends (awliya,).They are typically described as maintaining an ascetic and devotional lifestyle and as being anonymous; they pas-41 For example, the idea according to which the existence of the world depends upon a fixed number of righteous men who live in every generation is already found in Rabbinical literature of the Talmudic era; see The Babylonian Talmud, yoma, 38:b and Hagigah  12:b; Ginzberg, The Legends, vol.I, pp.250-253, vol.V, p. 239 n. 164; Sviri, "The Emergence of the Holy Man and the Spiritual Hierarchy in Islamic Mysticism: Biblical (and other) Echoes in a Muslim Woman's Dream"; see also Fenton, "The Hierarchy". 42For instance, in the works of Ibn al-,Arabi; see the reference above in n. 3. 43 On him see Smith, M., "Dhu'l-Nun, Abu'l-Fayd Thawban b.Ibrahim al-Misri", in EI 2 , vol.II, p. 242; Arberry, "A Biography"; Van Ess, "Biobibliographische Notizen zur islamischen Theologie.8. Der Kreis des Du n-Nun"; and Ebstein, "Du l-Nun al-Misri".-Qantara XXXIV 1, 2013, pp.387-413 ISSN 0211-3589 doi: 10.3989/alqantara.2013.014ABSENT YET AT ALL TIMES PRESENT sionately love God and enjoy intimacy with Him.Although the awliya, are physically present in the corporeal world, their hearts, spirits, or concentrated intentions (himam) travel in the upper, spiritual realms.The awliya, are God's loved ones (ahbab, ahibba,), His elect (safwa,  asfiya,, khasa,is, khassa-khawass, khira/khiyara), and were chosen by Him prior to the creation of the world. 44Dhu al-Nun al-Misri seems to have been one of the first mystics in the Sunni tradition who developed the idea of the hidden saint, and may be seen as a precursor to such movements as the malamatiyya. 45n one tradition that tells of his audience with the ,Abbasi Caliph al-Mutawakkil (232/847-247/861), 46 Dhu al-Nun is reported to have said:

Al
Allah has servants who have worshiped Him in sincere secrecy, and so He has honored them with His sincere gratitude. 47They are the ones whose leaves 48 pass empty with the angels, and, when reaching Him, He fills them with the secret of what they [themselves] have revealed to Him in private.Their bodies are of this world, whereas their hearts are celestial, containing such knowledge as if they were worshipping Him together with the angels in those spaces and heavens. 49ese righteous servants are God's "friends and loved ones" who enjoy His protection against their enemies.They are appointed by God to cure the spiritual diseases of mankind and are responsible for reminding human beings of their duties towards their Lord.The awliya, guarantee the existence of the world and the wellbeing of its inhabitants: They are the pegs 50 through whom the [divine] gifts are bestowed, the gates are opened, the clouds rise and appear, the punishment is averted, and both man and land are given water. 51e statement "Allah has servants who have worshiped Him in sincere secrecy […]" is in fact a Shi,i hadith, which is attributed in Shi,i sources to various imams, including Ja,far al-Sadiq. 52Judging by other 49 Al-Isfahani, Hilyat al-awliya,, vol.IX, p. 337 ([…] Inna li-llah ,ibadan ,abaduhu bi-khalis min al-sirr fa-sharrafahum bi-khalis min shukrihi fa-hum al-ladhina tamurru suhufuhum ma,a al-mala,ika firghan hatta idha sarat ilayhi mala,aha min sirr ma asarru ilayhi abdanuhum dunyawiyya wa-qulubuhum samawiyya qad ihtawat qulubuhum min al-ma,rifa ka-annahum ya,budunahu ma,a al-mala,ika bayna tilka al-furaj wa-atbaq al-samawat […]); see also Arabi,p. 75;p. 115. 50 Al-awtad, that is, the pegs on which the earth rests.In Islamic mysticism, this term would come to designate one of the highest levels in the hierarchy of the awliya,.